The Formal Education System Of Pakistan Education Essay

Education is the run manner of scholar on where he can confront the challenges of the universe every bit good as the society. It plays a critical function to put moral, societal and economic criterions of any state and has a really strong consequence on ideas, believes and planning of future constabularies of a state. Education is a state edifice and globally inter-related activity that unlocks the door to modernisation. Education is the right of every kid and it is the duty of the State to supply educational installations to each and every kid. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 ( as cited in National Education Policy, 1998-2010 ) provinces, â€Å" Everyone has the right to instruction † . The quality instruction is a necessary and inevitable agent for alteration as instruction is a procedure of civilisation and development. Recent grounds of a significant nexus between quality of schooling and single productiveness suggests that, from an economic efficiency position, quality facets of instruction deserve attending. Harmonizing to the Imran ( 2011 ) , the construct of quality in every field is complex in nature, elements, constituents, and in every regard. Quality is the most respectable but the slipperiest term in the field of instruction. Sometimes it is used in appraising sense, for illustration as a graduated table of goodness. Sometimes it is implied to seek some alone features. The quality in instruction refers to the criterion of direction, educational installations, course of study, methods of instruction, pupils, exanimation system, learning staff etc. Secondary instruction holds cardinal place in an educational system of every state, as it is a terminal phase for most of pupils and it besides serves as a linkage between simple phase and higher instruction. As it provides input for higher instruction and hence quality of higher instruction is dependent upon secondary instruction ( AIOU, 1997 ) . Secondary instruction ( IXXII ) is an of import sub-sector of the full educational system. It provides the in-between degree work force for the economic system on one manus and on the other it acts as a feeder for the higher degree of instruction. Higher instruction, which produces quality professionals in different Fieldss, is based on the quality of secondary instruction. Therefore, this degree of instruction demands to be revamped in such a manner that it may fix immature work forces and adult females for the chase of higher instruction every bit good as may besides fix them to set in their practical lives meaningfully and fruitfully ( GOP, 1998 ) Developed states have economic and political stability due to their organized construction for instruction. On the other manus, quality of instruction is hapless at all degrees in developing and under developed states. Developing states like Pakistan need proper alterations in their educational systems harmonizing to the demands of their society and to accomplish their national aims. The criterion of instruction or quality of instruction is really low in Pakistan. Without bettering quality of instruction, we can non maintain gait with the modern epoch. Keeping this issue in position it was the demand of the twenty-four hours to compare the quality of secondary school instruction in public and in private managed schools to the factual place. Iqbal ( 1987 ) reported that pupils in developing states have a low average degree of accomplishment compared to industrial states and their public presentation shows a much greater fluctuation around the mean. Harmonizing to a study of the World Bank ( 1999 ) , the chief things which authoritiess can make to better the quality of instruction are puting criterions, back uping inputs to better, accomplishments, following flexible schemes for the acquisition and usage of inputs, and supervising public presentation. By and large the stairss are non taken because of the weight of the bing instruction hurrying and direction patterns. Learning procedure requires five inputs: the pupil with larning capableness, capable or information to be transferred, teacher holding bid on the topic, clip for acquisition, and tools for learning and acquisition. Secondary instruction holds a cardinal place as it is the terminal phase for the bulk of pupils. The largest figure of educated work force in Pakistan is available at this phase. The economic experts believe the secondary instruction to be a anchor of the economic system while the sociologists consider it is an effectual arm of societal reforms. It can be said that the secondary instruction is strongly related with the economic advancement and societal public assistance of the state ( Ali, 1970 ) . Two chief sectors working side by side in the field of secondary instruction are private and authorities sector in Pakistan. National Education Policy ( 1979 ) identified that private sector plays an of import function in the development of instruction in a state. It helps both in the qualitative betterment and enlargement. Private sector bears a good trade of outgos burden on this of import societal cause even in the most advanced states. In a state like Pakistan where the population growing rate is about 3 per centum, yearly and merely approximately 20 per centum of the bing kids are in the secondary schools, the support of the private sector is severely needed to portion this immense load. Government entirely can non construct and run all the schools required for this intentAims of the surveyThis survey seeks to compare the quality of instruction of public and private schools of Gujranwala and the aims of survey were as: To compare the consequences of their pupils who appeared in boards ‘ scrutiny. To compare the quality of instruction in footings of physical installations and substructure qualities. To compare the ability of instructors. To compare their fee and salary construction. To compare their educational procedures.Significance of the surveyQuality instruction includes iˆ Learners, Environments, Content, Processes and Outcomes ( UNICEF, 2000 ) . Government sector is unable to suit the demands of quickly turning population. No 1 can deny the importance of private sector. Different surveies have highlighted the lacking quality of private sector. This survey endeavors to place the quality of larning environment and substructure in public and private schools. The consequences of this survey will be huge aid to the parents, pupils and general populace in the designation of the quality of public and private schools. This survey will besides be imperative for contrivers and policy shapers to heighten the quality of instruction and supply footing for reforms in instruction to get the better of all failings of public and private schools by integrating all the superior facets of both sectors.Problem statementThe research worker aims to pull the comparing the criterions of public and private secondary schools of Gujranwala in footings of quality of instruction.Research Questions or HypothesisQ1: How can we compare quality of instruction in footings of quality of physical installations and substructure? Q2: What is the difference of fee construction of public and private schools? Q3: What is the difference of salary bundle of the instructors of public and private schools? Q4: What is the difference of making of instructors of public and private schools? Q 5: What is the difference of difference of occupation term of office of public and private schools? Q6: What is the difference of making of principals of public and private schools? Q7: What is the difference of professional making of instructors and principals of public and private schools?Chapter IILITERATURE REVIEWIn this chapter, a elaborate reappraisal of accessible literature on the quality of secondary instruction in Pakistan has been presented along with a critical reappraisal of the related research has besides been presented at the terminal.Role of EducationEducation is a powerful drive force which drives mental, physical, ideological and moral readying of an person, so at the same clip it ease them to hold full consciousness of an instrument for their religious development along with the material fulfilment of human existences. With- in the context of Islamic – perceptual experience, instruction is an instrument for developing the attitude of persons in conformity with the value of righteousness which helps to construct a sound Islamic society ( Govt. of Pakistan, 1998 ) . Education plays an of import function in human resource development as it increases the end product, competency of persons and produces adept work force that is capable of taking the economic development. Importance of Education for human resource development does non necessitate any justification. The developed states give highest precedence to instruction ; same is the instance with the developing states. The fundamental law of Pakistan defines instruction as one of the cardinal rights of a citizen every bit good as constitutional committedness of the authorities accepts to supply entree to instruction to every citizen ( Govt. of Pakistan, 2000 ) .Formal Education System of Pakistanâ€Å" The Government of Pakistan shall supply free and mandatory instruction to maximal kids of the province. It might be determined by jurisprudence. † ( Govt. of Pakistan, 1972 ) . The intent of instruction is to extinguish the poorness and to better the societal behaviour. Education enhances the societal and ethical development. In formal instruction system, there are figure of phases.Pre-schoolingThe age-group for the pre-schooling is 3 to 5 old ages ( before one category, in Public schools Kachi category and in private schools. Play group /nursery/ homework ) .Primary SchoolingThe age-group for primary is 5 to 9 old ages ( Class 1 to 5 ) .Middle SchoolingThe age-group is 10 to 12years ( Class 6 to 8 ) .Secondary EducationBoard of Intermediate and Secondary Education [ BISE ] conducts the scrutiny ( Class 9 & A ; 10 ) .Higher Secondary/Intermediate EducationBISE awards the certification of Higher Secondary School Education ( HSSC ) ( Class 11 & A ; 12 ) .Higher EducationFour old ages instruction after Higher Secondary Education is considered as higher instruction. Two old ages for Bachelor ‘s grade and farther 2 old ages for Master ‘s grade. BS aw ards is besides equal to this grade. M. Phil and PhD plans are besides farther promotion after the completion of maestro grade. Academy of Educational Planning and Management ( 2010-11 ) reported the elaborate analysis of instruction system in Pakistan. Beginning: Academy of Educational Planning and Management, Govt. of Pakistan ( 2010 ) Figure 2.1: Structure of instruction Sector in Pakistan Education system of Pakistan is comprised of 270,825 establishments and is easing 40,926,661 pupils with the aid of 1,507,100 instructors. The system is composed of 194,151 public establishments and 76,674 private establishments. The public sector is functioning 26.63 million pupils to finish their instruction while the staying 13.96 million pupils are in private sector of instruction ( AEPM, 2010-11 ) .Importance of Secondary EducationIt is a true fact that fate of a state is shaped in the schoolrooms which implies that instruction is the chief beginning of advancement and development. It can be said without any vacillation that instruction can be largely responsible for the hereafter of Pakistan. Through instruction, state edifice procedure for the hereafter citizens of the state can take topographic point. As shortly the instruction molds pupils, state will be molded. From this point of position, a batch of duties lie with the educationalist for quality instruction. Therefore, the instruction must be qualitative so that the pupils may develop necessary cognition, attitude and accomplishments to execute their responsibilities efficaciously. It is in this context that quality instruction becomes the most of import component to heighten the quality of life in any state. It is so worthwhile to raise some issues in this respect and think of their solution ( AEPM, 2010-11 ) . In the earlier period of Pakistan, the highest precedences were literacy and numeracy in the schools. But subsequently, personal growing with the communicating accomplishment, accomplishment for societal life, problem-solving accomplishment and co-ordination of physical and mental accomplishments got attending and importance by the society. Schools contribute its function in a vivacious manner through the course of study. Secondary schools develop the ability of logical thinking, proper usage of linguistic communication, societal and emotional stability in the pupils. Secondary instruction plays a major function to bring forth realistic and adept pupils. Secondary instruction in all over the universe recognized as an of import degree. The quality of higher instruction is depended upon the quality of this phase. This is the important age of adolescence for young person ( AEPM, 2010-11 ) . In Italy higher secondary schools ware called â€Å" tribunal schools † . In England these types of schools were named â€Å" Grammar Schools † in1510.In USA foremost junior â€Å" Inter montage † came into being in California in 1907. In Pakistan, secondary instruction consists of four categories IX to XII. These are called secondary and higher secondary. In Pakistan higher secondary schools were established in 1954-55 ( Shahzad, 2007 ) . Harmonizing to the National Education Policy ( 1979 ) , the instruction system consists of three degrees as: Elementary Education: I to VIII Secondary Education: IX to XII Higher Education: Thirteen and so on ( Govt. of Pakistan, 1979 ) .Five Year Plans and Secondary EducationEight Five Old ages programs were presented by Government of Pakistan for the improvement of instruction in Pakistan.The First Five-Year Plan ( 1955-60 )Harmonizing to the First Five-Year Plan ( 1955-60 ) , the chief aims of secondary instruction were to present diversified classs in commercialism, agribusiness and proficient topics, to better the quality and to increase the figure of secondary schools. With the aid of repeat of history and political orientation of Pakistan, character edifice can be possible at secondary degree. Mathematicss and scientific discipline are mandatory topics for person ‘s calling. 15 schools will be upgraded to high degree. 75 new public schools will be opened. Grants-in-aid will be given to 100 privateschools.500 center and 100 high schools will be improved by adding scientific discipline classs. Registration in high schools increased from 0.10 9 million in 1955 to 0.149 million in 1960 ( Memon, 1986 ) .In this program the more accent on the measure instead than quality. The Second Five Year Plan ( 1960-65 ) The chief aims of the 2nd five twelvemonth program are integrating of in-between categories in higher secondary schools, variegation of classs, counsel coders, gap of residential schools, and increase of registration of secondary instruction ( Iqbal, 1993 ) . During the Plan 160 high schools were opened with all physical installations. 103 in-between schools were up-graded to high schools. Harmonizing to Hussain ( 2003 ) , â€Å" the plan for secondary instruction proposed in the program will increase the registration by 430.000 pupils at this degree. † The program shapers emphasized on measure merely and cipher was concerned about the quality of instruction provided to the pupils.The Third Five-Year Plan ( 1965-70 )Iqbal ( 1993 ) defines the aims of the 3rd five twelvemonth program. The chief aims of secondary instruction are in-between phase would be mandatory, development of educational installations, upgrading of in-between schools to high schools, accent on scientific discipline and mathematics, to bring forth adept state, and alter the course of study from general instruction to development of agricultural, commercial and administrative accomplishments. Policy shaper did non concentrate the quality of instruction. Student ‘s registration was the Centre of attending.Non- Plan Period ( 1970-78 )Harmonizing to the Iqbal ( 1993 ) that during non-plan per iod, the chief aims of secondary instruction were to contract down the difference between schools with the aid of comprehensive course of study, to accomplish an registration ratio of 40:60 between scientific discipline and humanistic disciplines programmes and consolidation of go outing secondary schools. Harmonizing to Govt. of Pakistan ( 1970 ) , â€Å" At the high phase ( Class IX and X ) registration is proposed to be increased by: 35 million against an registration of 77 million at the terminal of 3rd Plan. †Fifth Five-Year Plan ( 1978-83 )The 5th program is really of import in the respect of secondary instruction. There was a outstanding alteration in instruction of measure to quality. Curricula reform aimed at add-on of occupation orient preparation in secondary instruction. 195 Science research labs were constructed. The program provides the agro- proficient classs in 874 schools ( Memon, 1986 ) . Care and betterment of installations in all secondary schools would be mandatory. Although the necessity and importance of secondary instruction was accepted in all stakeholders, but subsequently decision makers neglected the said steps.The Sixth Five-Year Plan ( 1983-88 )Education is really necessary for the development of a society. Without instruction, no 1 has of all time been uplift himself and ne'er assist supply economically benefits to his state. In harmonizing to 6th program Mathematics, Urdu, Islamiyat, Pakistan Studies and Science topics were the mandatory topics. Particular focal point on mathematics and scientific discipline was indispensable for all pupils at secondary instruction ( Govt. of Pakistan, 1983 ) . Measure of high schools would be increased to 5530 and 1073 in-between schools to be up-graded ( Memon, 1986 ) .The Seventh Five-Year Plan ( 1988-93 )The instruction system suffers from critical status. Forty per centum of the kids do non hold entree to instruction. Harmonizing to Govt. of Pakistan ( 1988 ) , â€Å" The 7th program scheme was to increase the literacy rate through betterment and enlargement of primary instruction every bit good as to actuate the private sector to play an active function. While it was estimated that the literacy rate will lift to about 40 per centum by 1992-93, the substructure created during the 7th p rogram was expected to give a literacy rate of 80 per centum by terminal of the century. † The 7th program will be spread out the secondary instruction installations. The course of study at secondary degree will be changed. For the betterment of quality of instruction in secondary schools, Bachelor of Education ( B.Ed. ) grade holder instructors will be appointed. A little inn for pupils will be provided to secondary schools. One theoretical account school for male childs and one for misss will be launched in each territory for the betterment of quality ( Hussain, 2003 ) .Eighth Five Year Plan ( 1993-98 )Education is cardinal right of every kid. To carry through the demand of measure, schools ignored the quality and a big figure of educational establishments were opened without proper substructure. Harmonizing to Govt. of Pakistan ( 1993 ) , â€Å" Facilities for secondary instruction will be extended to absorb the increased end product from primary schools. For this intent, about 2.4 million extra seats in categories VI to X will be created by upgrading primary and in-be tween schools, set uping new high schools and adding schoolrooms in the bing schools. Construction of extra schoolrooms and betterment of the bing edifices of schools will besides be carried out. In urban countries, 2nd displacement will be introduced in secondary schools wherever executable. † Private sector will be appreciated for the partnership to raise the registration at the secondary degree. Curriculum will be revised for better quality. Science laboratories will be provided with better-trained instructors ( Govt. of Pakistan, 1993 ) . Hussain ( 2003 ) evaluated that â€Å" The 8th national five twelvemonth program will promote in spread of quality educational establishments to the distant countries of the state. Till the terminal of the Eighth program, each territory will hold a theoretical account school for male childs and each division will hold such an establishment for misss in the populace or private sector. Private sector will be encouraged to set up the quality instruction establishments. Government will set up theoretical account schools merely in territories where such establishments do non be under public or private sector †National Education Policies in PakistanSecondary instruction was discussed in all National Policies of Pakistan.Report of Commission on National Education ( 1959 )On 30th December, 1958 the Government of Pakistan appointed a committee. The map of this committee is to analyse all the old studies and all on-going educational motions of the state. The committee recognized seconda ry instruction as a separate academic unit. The committee besides suggested that the secondary instruction should be divided into three phases ( 6 to 12 ) . Urdu, scientific discipline and mathematics should be taught as mandatory topics. Consequences should be complied on the public presentation of the pupils. Science labs and libraries should be provided in all secondary schools ( Govt. of Pakistan, 1959 ) .The Education Policy ( 1972-1980 )On 15th March, 1972 the president of Pakistan Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto presented the Educational policy 1972-1980. He expressed that the instruction system was rendered by the pick of the harvest in Pakistan. The authorities allocated really low budget for the instruction. The intent of instruction should bring forth the state with spiritual positions, traditions and civilization. Education system divided into four phases of primary secondary, college and university. Harmonizing to Memon ( 1986 ) , â€Å" Secondary Education should non be abstract enterprise but must associate to the employment chances. The secondary instruction may supply for progressive integrating of general and proficient instruction. The registration in humanistic disciplines topics may be restricted to the bing degree and important addition should be made in scientific discipline and agro proficient instruction †National Education Policy, 1979Secondary instruction was recognized as a terminal phase of pupils in the National Education Policy, 1979. The quality of higher instruction is based on the quality of secondary instruction. Elementary, secondary and university instruction are three degrees of Pakistan ‘s instruction system s. Physical installations such as scientific discipline labs, and libraries would be provided to the secondary schools. Curriculum should be upgraded. Mathematicss would be mandatory capable. One 1000 center schools will be upgraded to high schools and 200 new schools would be opened. New instructors would be appointed ( Ghaffar, 2003 ) . Board of Intermediate and Secondary would be held the scrutiny system at secondary degree. Estimated needed budget was Rs. 8,073 million for secondary instruction ( Govt. of Pakistan, 1979 ) .National Education Policy 1998-2010In the position of National Education Policy 1998-2010, secondary instruction has played important function in the whole instruction system. It enhances the work force for the economic system and bring forth feeder the higher degrees of instruction. The quality of higher instruction is based upon the quality of secondary instruction ( Govt. of Pakistan, 1998 ) . The policy shapers had pointed out some failing in the secondary instruction such as: No attractive force for the investor. Unplanned enlargement and irrational distribution of schools. Being of scientific discipline and mathematics instructors had non been valued. Technical and vocational instruction at secondary degree remained a controversial issue. Physical installations and text editions were deficient. The undermentioned stairss were identified in the policy for the accomplishment of the aims of secondary instruction in the state: New theoretical account secondary school would be opened. Definite career at secondary degree would be introduced. Revision of course of study would be compulsory. Multiple text books would be introduced at secondary degree. In-service and pre-service instructors developing programmes would be arranged. Project method of learning would be initiated at secondary degree. Education service committee would be established Salary constructions of instructors would be based on making. Education card would be provided to destitute pupils ( Ghaffar, 2003 ) . The secondary degree input rate is 32 per centum which will be raised to 48 per centum. Harmonizing to Govt. of Pakistan ( 1998 ) , â€Å" Course of study at secondary phase will be based on two rules. First, at it will supply a compulsory nucleus of topics give every student the cognition utile for a underdeveloped society. Second, it will include extra topics and developing to fix the pupils of a definite calling. Curricula for secondary phase ( IX- XII ) shall be revised with a position to excite job resolution, independent thought and in the visible radiation of other aims outlined above.National Plan of Action 2001-2005Technical instruction was offered in Matriculation as capable. Its chief intent was to fix pupils for the practical life. After finishing their secondary instruction, they could take the work. National Plan of Action [ NPA ] had mark to set up 1,100 proficient high schools in the state. The chief aims of NPA were to emphasis on instruction of adult females, to he ighten engagement of society and to advance the quality instruction. Quality betterment and school effectivity had been given cardinal importance. The chief quality inputs were besides pointed out in the National Plan of Action 2001-2005. National Education Assessment System ( NEAS ) was introduced ( Govt. of Pakistan, 2003 ) .National Education Policy 2009The reviewed procedure for the National Education Policy 1998-2010 was shaped in 2005 named â€Å" White Paper † . This White Paper became the footing of New Policy and finalized in March 2007.The secondary school system prepares immature people for life. Supplying accomplishments to the labour market and supplying input to the higher instruction are two of import functions of secondary instruction. Access at secondary schools in Pakistan is low in comparing to other states. Average ratio of secondary to primary school is 1: 6 in Pakistan, but in different parts of the state, it is 1:13 ( Govt. of Pakistan, 2009 ) . Following stairss will be taken for the betterment of secondary instruction in Pakistan: Provision shall be expanded specially in those locations where the ratio of Secondary schools is low. Student fiscal support shall be increased. Students shall present more student-centre teaching methods. Handiness of reding installations for the pupils. Life Skills-Based Education ( LSBE ) shall be promoted.

Changes in Children- Birth Essay

Before six months the main reason why a child’s emotion and emotional expression is different is due to the brain not being fully mylinated. As the child ages past the first month, their frontal cortex begins to advance as increasing neurological development is starting and beginning to modify and transform the operations of the in-built emotional expressions (Wilson, 2003, p. 55). Suffering, pain, joy, fear and interest are among the first emotions that an infant express. These primary emotions are important as this is a child’s first way of showing and communicating with adults their needs. It is for the reason of communication we must look at our primary emotions as a human survival mechanism, as these are involuntary and in- built features all children are born with (Wilson, 2003, p. 55). All primary emotions are all expressed in the same manner, which raises the question as to whether emotions are all universal; that emotions are genetic, or that all cultures share mutual background features. There are 2 main theories on emotional development; discrete emotions theory and a structural approach (Wilson, 2003, p. 48). Izard, Tomkins, Ekman are the leaders of discrete emotions theory. These theorists proclaimed that emotion had 3 components; physiological, behavioural and subjective. These emotions where present from birth and could be seen by studying facial expressions of infants. The results and information these theorists where gaining agreed with Darwin that these expressions where the same in all culture and must be an in-built neural feature. As humans age our primary emotions network with cognition and form ‘cognitive affected structures’, this is how secondary emotions are developed discrete emotions theory (Wilson, 2003, p. 49). This theory can be applied to my own family, as recently there was a sudden death of my aunt, as a result we had family members calling from different parts of Australia and the world calling to offer their condolences and support to our family. This reaction to a death of a family member is universal. The structural development approach see’s development as holistic. This approach states that all systems interact with each other and the environment with emphasis on the social environment. The environment play a large factor in the development of children, but theorists cannot deny genetic is also a large contributor. Sroufe a theorist states that all emotions have antecedent. In Sroufe’s theory in the first 6 months of an infant’s life emotional ancestor can also be physiological states and not recognised as emotions, and that secondary emotions build from there (Wilson, 2003, p. 50). By the age of two, a toddler’s brain contains more neurons than an adult and has twice the amount of connections between these cells. It has been linked that that as a toddler’s brain contains more neurons that they need more rest then adults for their brain’s to function fully. During this time more neurons die and more connections are pruned throughout brain in the first three years of life than other stage of life. The leading element of the development of expressions of emotion in the child’s environment is the carer and the care the child receives. Emotional deprivation occurs when children who are not had consistent warm emotional relationships as a young child, this leads to their secondary emotions being weak. Children who have suffered from emotional deprivation are targets for exploitation and paedophiles as they have ‘affection hunger’ (Wilson, 2012 slide, 8) A child in the toddlerhood has additionally reached a point where they have developed a sense of self. The maturation of the frontal lobes and the limbic circuit in the brain is the cause for the development of a toddler achieving a sense of self. As a result of the toddlers sense of self they are able to show empathy and can affectively communicate and label their emotions to their peers and adults. This allows a child to say ‘I am mad or sad’ instead of crying and having a tantrum, although toddlers still react in this manner they can communicate there emotions more effectively (â€Å"Emotional development†, 2006,. ara 7). From two to six years of age is early childhood. It is at this stage in a child’s life they have developed motor skills that enable them to become more self-sufficient and self-controlled. Children are creating friendships and being more engrossed in playtime such as; painting pictures which creates symbolic expression. There is an incr easing need for the carer to engage with the toddler by conversing and meeting the child’s social, cognitive and emotional needs, their perspectives, and interests. The child’s ability to tell stories is a way of understanding their perspectives (â€Å"Hearing young children’s voices,† nd, p. 19). Through a greater understanding of the world around them a child develop and understanding that the world didn’t revolve around them and that nothing was as simple as they one thought it was. During the age of 2-6 most children attend preschool, which gives young children a great understand about display rules. By attending preschool it gives young children an understanding about how to express their emotions in an appropriate way in all contexts of life ranging from family, school and society. Toddlers may learn how to appropriately express their emotions but influences from their family still have a great impact on their expression. The preschool is a system, with rules, boundaries, and expectations. It is important for children to know where they stand and by placing them in a system such as preschool whilst they are developing their emotional expression allows them to shine. For children in good environments the control of emotional expression accelerates from 3 to 5 years (Wilson, 2003, p132). From the age of six to eight children become aware of the difference between expressing emotion and feeling it. This affectively allows the child to manage their emotional expression by reflecting on their emotions; this is an emotional coping skill children learn in order to avoid negative attention or experiences such as bullying. Although, school age children are becoming more exposed to the wider world new challenges are arising such as, fears of failing or poor academic result in school as many children are put under presser from parents to achieve high grades (Berk, 2009, p. 410). When the child reaches ten years of age their expression of emotions is likely to have significantly enhanced. At this age most children have developed a set of techniques for controlling their expressions of emotion. General strategies are problem centred coping, they are able to identify the challenge, asses and solve issues that may arise. If problem solving is not successful the child may adopt emotion-centred coping that is private and internal (Berk, 2009, p. 410). An external influence has also been heightened during this period such communicating with their peers on how to deal with the situation. Children at this age are able to justify circumstances and actions or â€Å"reconstruct scenarios to make them seem less upsetting emotionally† (â€Å"Emotional development†, 2006,. para. 11). By age eleven, the child has began to integrate inner standards of excellence and good behaviour with self-conscious emotions; their internal strategies are starting to be utilised for self-regulating, and a shift from problem centred and emotion centred coping has taken place and there social etiquette of expressing emotions has improved (Berk, 2009, p. 416). In adolescents emotions are still forming. Most children reach adolescence rom eleven to twenty years. During this time an adolescent is trying to create distance from their family and form their independence. Peer pressure may appear to be irresistible regardless of the adolescence’s inner feelings, as it full fills their need for acceptance and desire to ‘fit it’. Emotional expression and even the adole scence’s inner feelings may alter on the way they react to certain stimuli or events, when in the context of groups, this can be seen in how a adolescent reacts on a school excursion to how they react out with their peers on the weekend at a movie theatre. Wilson, 2003, p. 176-77). Young adolescences’ endure peer group contexts where their expression of emotion is displayed in the environment of peer norms. Each child is an individual as they have been brought up in different backgrounds. In turn their fundamental feelings have been restricted although they have acquired the display associated with emotion. In example some adolescences may display in anger in what they have seen of anger, with the increase in aggression used television shows and in movies adds to the range of anger an adolescent cane use (Wilson, 2003, pp176-77). In certain circumstances some adolescences exhibition emotions that they may not feel or more emotions than felt, this is present in children of younger age groups but, is more dominant in adolescences. Adolescence is known as a period of storm and stress. Social, cognitive and environmental factors are a large contribution of how the adolescences expression of emotion will inevitably mature. During adolescence the social problems become more complex and they chose to talk to their peers to offer help to overcome this situation (â€Å"Emotional development†, 2006,. para. 12). Children who have been deprived have complex expressions of emotions, and on top of the struggle with complicated emotions that arise during adolescents put’s these children at greater strain. Adolescents according to Piaget are self- focusing. Piaget believed that during adolescence a new form of egocentrism formed as adolescents could not separate the difference between their thoughts and others thoughts. There were 2 main ways this could be explained, through self-audience and personal fable. Self -audience is when an adolescent believes they are the emphasis of everyone’s attention. It is through self-audience that adolescents may feel extremely self-conscious and aware of themselves. Self fable is when an adolescent feels that people are always giving them attention and watching them, this is similar to what a toddler may think but by this stage an adolescent should know that they can not always be the centre of attention. When an adolescent is not receiving they believe is due it leads to them being upset and moody. (Berk, 2009, p. 252) As human beings everyone develops their emotion expression at various time of their life. As we age and mature so do our emotions and expressions, how an infant reacts to a range of emotions compared to a 20 year old will be absolutely different, this may be due to the culture they have been brought up in or they have learned display rules. As seen throughout this essay emotional development does not occur in isolation but in some rare circumstances it does, there are many cognitive, neurological and behavioural influences interact with emotional, social and cultural influences. References Berk, L. (2009). Child development (8th ed. Person International Edition Colman,A. (2009), Oxford Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press Emotional development . (2006). Retrieved from http://www. education. com/reference/article/emotional-development/ Hearing young children’s voices, (n. d). Retrieved from http://www. children. act. gov. au/documents/PDF/under5report. pdf Wilson, L. (2003), The Emotional Life of Children. National Library of Australia: Charles Sturt University. Wilson, L. (2012). Lecture3: dependence needs of children [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from in class on the 17/07/2012

Examine how soaps attract their target audience Essay

The reason I am writing this essay is because I am going to identify the difference between two soaps, one is Australian and the other is English. The Australian soap is called â€Å"Neighbours† and the English soap is â€Å"Coronation Street†. We are looking at these two soaps because we are seeing how successful each soap is at attracting its target audience. The first soap I will write about will be â€Å"Coronation Street† this soap is the English soap out of the two, so it is set in England at a town called Wetherfield, just outside of Manchester. In real life Wetherfield is a town down south. The set of â€Å"Coronation Street† has an old pebble street, with old terrace housing. There are many meeting places within the soap which are Peoples houses, but in the specific episode I am talking about the house that it is set in are Janise’s house. The houses that it makes the street typically English are old Victorian houses which are Terrance houses. The other meting places within the soap are Rovers Inn, the cafi and Roy’s Rolls. On the episode I watched the climate was very cold and cloudy. The main characters which appear on the soap â€Å"Coronation Street† are Janice and Les who are married but are getting a divorce. Dev and Gina are another two big characters in the episode I am writing about. They are getting married, in the episode we only see them on there hen and stag night. The other characters which don’t play much of a part in the episode I am talking are Deidre, Ken, Curly, Terry and Maxine. There are 10 storyline going on in â€Å"Coronation street†, I will tell you some of them. Deidre had a one night stand with Dev, but now Dev is getting married to Gina, so Deidre is upset. A surprise party is being organized of the happy couples getting married, which are Dev and Dina. Curly and his partner had a baby. Janice’s boyfriend Dennis died in a car accident. Last but not least Maxine is pregnant. The way the storylines are set out in the episodes is that the skip to one storyline at a time so it would be like a cycle e. g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4. I think the best characters in â€Å"Coronation Street† are Dev and Dina, because they really do look like they are in love, as I don not normally watch this soap I could tell straight away that they were in love. Since I don’t have background information on the soap I can’t tell if Dev and Dina are together in real life or not, but if they are not they are really good actors. The best storyline in â€Å"Coronation Street† has to be the â€Å"party† that the street was organizing for the married couple to be, and how Deidre looks all upset and depressed. The way that the producer makes the soap â€Å"Coronation Street† typically English is the English accent is brought into the soap, many pubs in the street which England has take fleet for example we must have roughly about 10 pubs where I live. The way the characters use the typically English phrase â€Å"do you want a cup of tea? † which this phrase is often heard in the English language. Also earlier in the essay I mentioned that there were coble streets and Terrance houses. The target audience the soap â€Å"Coronation Street† is aimed at is mainly older people and their family and middle aged women. The theme tune makes you feel really old. The reason I said family was because â€Å"Coronation Street† is put on in prime time when all the family gets together. An middle aged women can convert to there life through an soap like â€Å"Coronation Street† there is also another reason an middle age women might watch â€Å"Coronation Street† this reason would be that there are many female characters in the soap. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. One of the characters in â€Å"Coronation Street† is a certain race to this will encourage other races to watch the soap. Another character in the soap has they same affect on the audience and that is Roy because he owns his own company other people who think that they can’t relate to â€Å"Coronation Street† they watch how is business is going. I know this because my Uncle Robert does the same thing. The storyline with Janice and lose of her boyfriend is another eye catcher for the audience as many people can relate to it as they might have lost there boyfriend through death or just breakup. The other storyline with attracts the audiences attention is Maxine and her that she is carrying even tough the baby isn’t her boyfriends she will have to face the truth one day, another case of the same story is in â€Å"Eastenders† where Lisa has had Phil’s baby. The location of the soap â€Å"Neighbours† is set in Australia. Also in â€Å"Coronation Street† the soap â€Å"Neighbours† also has many meeting points which are people’s houses but in the episode i watched it was just â€Å"Lou’s place†. The other meting places were Good Hair Day Salon, the Dina, outside Karl’s warehouse and the school. The Climate unlike â€Å"Coronation Street† was sunny hot with a lovely clear sky. Some of the main characters which appear in the soap, are Karl and Susan who are married and have two kids called Stephanie and †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Lou and Louise are other two main Characters in the soap and Lou is the Father of Louise. Sandy and John are married. And there are many other characters who are Libby, Drew, Paul, Felicity, Joe, Todd, Toady, Maggie, Emily, Evan, Lyn, Harold, Leo, Matt, Dee, Tess, Michelle, Joel and Sandy. There are only 5 compared to â€Å"Coronation Street† in which there are 10. In â€Å"Neighbours† Lou is losing Louise his daughter because he lost the Hearing. Stephanie has got a job interview, which she doesn’t get because her Mum and sister give her a makeover, in which the Interviewer did not like as Stephanie would be working with men. Stephanie also runs into an old mate who she new through Woody, as woody and him shared the same room in hospital. Leo’s dad recons that Leo is being bullied, so he takes action. As Leo confronts his dad to say that he wasn’t bullied but didn’t give certain people their essays that they paid for. Karl is receiving a delivery in which he hasn’t the slightest clue what the deliver contains. I think the best character in â€Å"Neighbours† is Lou as he has such a hard part to play, losing his Louise is a very heart breaking experience, which also brings Lou thinking how much one Human being means to him. I also recon the best storyline has to be Lou losing Louise, I does make you want to cry, it also brings the audiences emotions into the picture. The soap â€Å"Neighbours† is typically Australian because of the climate which I mentioned earlier on in the essay. The registration number on the car is Australian. At the beginning of the soap while the theme tune is playing the characters are all around a pool and are having a BBQ in which the Australians are famous for. The Target audience for â€Å"Neighbours† is completely different from the audience that â€Å"Coronation Street† is aiming for. The producer of â€Å"Neighbours† is aiming for a much younger audience than â€Å"Coronation Street†. The storyline where Lou loses Louise attracts too different ages of the audience, the younger and the older, because some kids could refer to Louise’s situation, and some adults can refer to Lou’s situation on letting Louise go. Early twenties are aimed at as well as Stephanie goes for a job interview in which she doesn’t get. Leo brings younger people to the audience as he is in high school, and Karl brings business people to the audience as he owns his own business in the soap the same as Roy in â€Å"Coronation Street†. My conclusion on the soaps â€Å"Coronation Street† and â€Å"Neighbours† is that â€Å"Neighbours† attracted the audience it was aiming for much better that â€Å"Coronation Street† as in â€Å"Neighbours† they brought the story of Lou and Louise. In â€Å"Coronation Street† there was much to relate to in my age group. As I have mentioned before Lou’s story brings everyone’s emotions together. As I do not normally watch these soaps I don’t see if â€Å"Coronation Street† relates to me or not.

The laboratory diagnosis, monitoring and management of the diabetic Essay

The laboratory diagnosis, monitoring and management of the diabetic patient - Essay Example This disorder is known as hyperglycemia. Many other metabolic abnormalities occur, notably an increase in ketone bodies in the blood when there is severe lack of insulin (Jacobs, 1996). Glucose measurement in an accredited laboratory should be the rationale of ant diagnosis of diabetes. In the laboratory, glucose tolerance test is not norm ally required in regular clinical practice. It can only be carried out if uncertainty exists in younger patients, or to find out an exact diagnosis in pregnancy. For, results that can be counted on, glucose tolerance tests should be carried out in the morning after an overnight fast, with the patient being required to sit calmly and not smoking. In addition, the patient should have normal meals for the previous three days and should not have been dieting. Inaccurate results may be achieved if the patient has been ill recently or has had prolonged bed rest (Fine, 2008). During glucose tolerance test, blood glucose concentrations are determined and are measured fasting and then one and two hours after a drink of 75g of glucose in a volume of waster, approximately 250-350ml. it is recommended that the water be flavored, for example, with pure lemon juice. Further, urine tests should be carried out before the glucose drink and at one and two hours. According to WHO, ADA, and diabetes UK, the criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes states that: symptoms of diabetes plus casual venous plasma glucose11.1mmol/1. They define casual as any time of the day without regard to time since the last meal was taken. Some of the classic symptoms include polyuria, polydipsia, and unexplained weight loss. Secondly, fasting plasma glucose should be or whole blood. Fasting is defined as no calorie intake for at least eight hours. Another criterion for diagnosis is: 2 hour plasma glucose during oral glucose tolerance test using 75g

Brownfield and Redevelopment in China Research Paper

Brownfield and Redevelopment in China - Research Paper Example Environmental Protection Agency). It is further defined as† a parcel of land contaminated by one or more hazardous substances, but has potential to be reused once it is cleaned up† (China Development Gateway, 14 January 2011) . In the past several years, hundreds of polluting enterprises have been relocated away from city centers in Beijing, Shenyang, Guangzhou and other large Chinese cities. As a result, a large number of abandoned industrial brownfield sites can potentially be "recycled" for contemporary urban use, appropriate to the safe levels achieved after the clean-up. These could be anywhere from abandoned factories or manufacturing plants, factories or gas stations where substances were once used. The Brownfield become an obstacle for city expansion. Aside from this, Brownfield causes environmental risks due to possible pollutants that may still be present, yet redevelopment of these sites will contribute to urban development, create jobs, and develops green spac es and working land. Seeing the importance of these properties for development, China had to ask the World Bank for assistance in developing a sustainable program of development for these areas. As an insight, the history of the problem will be presented, the types of hazardous elements and contaminants found in abandoned areas will be categorized, the actions taken by the government is shown, and the recommended solutions formulated by World Bank is presented. Brownfields started in the Great Leap Forward era of 1950s wherein many of the state-owned factories were constructed within the city perimeter. (Zhang Xian, January 22. 2011) Reports said that these factories used antiquated equipments and had improper management and inadequate environmental services. As such, there was much pollution in the area, and in some instances pollution was 100 times higher than regulations permit. Report said that some underground organic pollutants have developed into non-aqueous phase liquids, wh ich, if not dissolved in water, can be a source of new pollutants. It is also feared that contaminants can transfer in the underground water, thus leading to a widespread distribution of poison. Four types of contaminants were found in the Industrial brownfield areas, and these are: Heavy contaminated sites. These come from steel, iron and smelting plants, ore tailings . Heavy metal contaminated sites. Typical contaminants are arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, and chrome. Persistent Organic Pollutant (POP) contaminated sites. China produces, and widely uses, pesticides such as DDT, HCB, Chlordane and Mirex. Although certain pesticides haven’t been used for many years, some remain in the soil. New pesticide-contaminated sites continue to be discovered in China, in addition to other types of POP contaminated sites, such as PCB capacitor dismantling and burial sites. Organic contaminated sites such as petrochemical, coking etc. Substances include organic solvents, benzene and hyd rocarbons, often mixed with other contaminants such as heavy metals. Electronic waste sites. Incorrect disposal of electronic waste can affect human health. The main contaminants are heavy metals and POPs (bromination flame retardants and dioxin). Source: Xie, Jian and Li Fasheng, 2011 In the past, there was little attention given to Brownfield areas and its harmful effects because of

Existentialism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Existentialism - Essay Example Levinas claimed that human existence in terms of Holocaust is rather a descriptive than prescriptive. Thus, Levinas claimed that humans were unable to oppose to a dreadful Holocaust. There can be no religious solution to the phenomenon of Holocaust. Therefore, these philosophers question the existence of God. Such an awful historical whip has made these philosophers reevaluate their attitude to God and religion. The reasons for God’s actions cannot be interpreted. Auschwitz existence cannot be removed from our history; nevertheless it is possible to prevent its future occurrence. With this regard, the essence of its existence should be found out. Concerning the basic concepts of a human existence, such as freedom†, â€Å"responsibility† and â€Å"suffering†, Frankl suggests an interesting interpretation of these concepts from existential perspective. Frankl considers freedom from an existential perspective and he considers it together with the concept of re sponsibility. Existential freedom of a person exists in spite of the fact whether he is politically free or not. Frankl relates freedom and responsibility in the following terms: "Life ultimately means taking the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and to fulfill the tasks which it constantly sets for each individual" (Frankl).

Joseph Brant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Joseph Brant - Essay Example Perhaps no Freemason who ever lived in America has been so condemned by some authors and praised by others as Joseph Brant, the powerful and influential Mohawk chief who sided with the British during the American Revolutionary War.Born at Cuyahoga Ohio Country on the banks of the Cuyahoga River, near present-day Akron, Ohio, during the hunting season when Mohawks travelled to the area, Brant was originally named Thayendanegea, which has possibilities of meaning two wagers (sticks) bound together for strength, or "he who places two bets." The parents of Joseph Brant were Mohawks whose home was at Canajoharie on the Mohawk River in New York. Brant, however, was born on the banks of the Ohio River in 1742 while his parents were on a hunting excursion to that region.(1) His father was Nickus (or "Nicholas") of the Wolfe family, who, although not a chief, was a Mohawk of some standing in the tribe. His mother Margaret, or Owandah, the niece of Tiaogeara, a Caughnawaga sachem, took Joseph and his older sister Mary , alsoknown as Molly, to Canajoharie, on the Mohawk River in east-central New York, where she had lived before her family moved to the Ohio River. His mother remarried on 9 September 1753 in Fort Hunter (Church of England) a widower named Brant Canagaraduncka, who was a sachem of the tribe. Thus he got the name of Brant.Sir William Johnson, the British superintendent of the northern Indians of America, who was extremely popular with the tribes under his supervision, developed a liking for Brant when he was just in his youth. During his time with the Iroquois, Johnson became particularly close to the Mohawk tribes. He was also a Mason and a former Provincial Grand Master of the New York colony. In 1759 Johnson's wife, Catherine died and he then married his Indian mistress who happened to be Brant's sister, Molly in an Indian ceremony later that year. It was due largely to Johnsons relationship with Molly that Brant received the favor and protection of Sir William and through him the British government, which set Brant on the road to promotion. Brant and a number of young Mohawks were selected by Johnson to attend Moors Charity School for Indians at Lebanon, Connecticut- the school which was later to become Dartmouth College. Here he learned to speak and write English and was introduced to Western history and literature studies. He is the only one of those chosen known to have derived any benefit from the educational process standing at that time. He left school to serve under Sir William from 1755-1759 during the French and Indian War (1754-1763). After these participatons, he became Sir William's close companion and helped him run the Indian Department which was administered by the British out of Quebec. He was also assigned the work of an interpreter for an Anglican missionary and helped translate the prayer book and Gospel of Mark into the Mohawk language, which he did in a quite orderly fashion. About 1768 he married Christine, the daughter of an Oneida chief, whom he had met in school. He then settled with her on a farm near Canajoharie which he had inherited. While here, Brant assisted in revising the Mohawk prayer book and translating the Acts of the Apostles into the Mohawk language. He also joined the Anglican Church, was a regular communicant, and evinced a great desire to bring Christianity to his people. His wife died of tuberculosis about 1771, leaving him with a son and a daughter. In 1773, he married his wife's sister, Susannah, who died a few months afterward, also of tuberculosis. In 1780, he married Catherine Adonwentishon Croghan, the daughter of the prominent American colonist, Indian agent, fur trader, and New York-Pennsylvania-Ohio landowner/speculator George Croghan and a Mohawk mother, Catharine Tekarihoga. They had seven children: Joseph, Jacob, John, Margaret, Catherine(2), Mary and Elizabeth. Through her mother, Catharine Adonwentishon was head of the Turtle

The Great Pro-Democratic Revolutions of the spring of 2011 in Syria Essay

The Great Pro-Democratic Revolutions of the spring of 2011 in Syria - Essay Example Finally, there will be a comparison between the main topic to the ideas of the Makovsky and Ross thesis in addition to a thorough conclusion. There are three basic myths as analyzed by Makovsky and Ross in the book of Myths, Peace, and Illusions: Finding a New Direction for the US in the Middle East. The first myth shows that all issues concerning the Middle Eastern countries are associated with the conflicts between Israel and Palestine. The second myth is the comparison between the engagement and non-engagement of regimes, changes in regimes and their behavior. The final myth discussed by the two authors concerns the question about the democracy promotion. In the first myth, the Arabs claimed that they had a large population in Palestine before the creation of Israel forgetting there was Jewish population as well. The conflict began when Palestine wanted to create their own Jewish State claiming that they owned, but the Zionists rejected their right. It was claimed that Zionist leaders had a legal mandate for the existence of Israel State which was false as recommended by the UN. According to Ross and Makovsky, the old s aying that everything in the Middle East was connected to everything else gives a better roadmap rather than rejecting any connection between Israel and other matters (Ross & Makovsky, 2010). In the second myth, Ross and Makovsky focus on Iran and their satellites, Hamas, and Hezbollah, with Israel. The pattern of conflict between two-states was repeated when Hamas was voted into power in the year 2006. Hamas had accepted the form of the Israel state, although it rejected the two-state solution claiming that it was meant to destroy Israel. After Ismail Haniyeh was being elected in 2006, he said that Hamas had accepted the formation of a Palestinian state, according to 1967 borders.  Ã‚  

International Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International Economics - Essay Example Services sector as it contributes almost 78 percent in U.S economy. If U.S. or for that matter any of the developed countries such as UK, France, Germany, Japan has to increase the international trade, their contribution has to come through the services sector because they are dominant contributors in the GDP. The reasons that services cannot be traded as freely as goods can be are attributed to the following. 1. Many services are non-transportable; it requires geographic proximity between producer and consumer countries. 2. Many services cannot be mass produced; mostly they are tailored as per the geographical needs posing a difficulty in the international trade. 3. Many services go along with the supply of the goods and they cannot be separated to impart the benefits to the consumers. Example is cars imported from Japan or China into US with 3-4 years warranty. Servicing cost is included in the original price. 4. It is difficult to export the services from developed countries (U.S) to developing countries such as India. The reason is that the cost of producing the services in a developing country is much lower than the cost incurred in developed economies. The glaring example is IT (Information Technology) services outsourced to countries like India, China where the cost of production is much less. Answer 2. Difficulties in the Balance of Payment (B.O.P) of the U.S in the present time US is facing Balance of Payment problem since last many years and it is steadily increasing from 1 percent in 1995 to almost 8 percent of the GDP now. The reasons for such high deficits are many and varied and can be enumerated as per the following. (Riley, Geoff 2006) 1. It is an indication of high consumption with a weaker industrial sector. Consumers are spending beyond their means leading to higher household debt. 2. A trade deficit is also an indication of loss of employment and output. It is a net leakage between income and spending. 3. Currency value (read $) comes under pressure against other leading currencies and continue to depreciates as deficit continues or rises. This also necessitates an increase in interest rates by the central bank. Answer 3. Compare and contrast the structure of the E.U and the USA (NAFTA). NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) is a treaty between Canada, Mexico, and the United States. NAFTA has been operational since 1994. It governs the entire North American trade. NAFTA agreement has removed the tariffs between the member countries Mexico, Canada, and U.S for goods shipped between them. This has resulted into the purchase of goods by Mexico in large quantities from U.S. This results into savings for Mexican companies on imports and it saves American company considerably on shipping costs. In contrast, EU has large number of member countries in it fostering similar cooperation among them. The major difference between these two is that EU members trade in a common currency but NAFTA members do not have any common c urrency. Moreover, EU has its own political charter in contrast to NAFTA who does not have any. Answer 4. Explain Ricardo’s theory of trade and compare it to the H-O theory of trade? The theory of comparative advantage is behind the international trade in which both the countries benefit from the trade. Ricardo explained this in his book on the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation giving example of England and Portugal. Portugal produces wine and cloth with less labor compared to England for the

Internet slang, and the effect it has had on traditional language Essay

Internet slang, and the effect it has had on traditional language - Essay Example ranca (Vosloo, 2009), not only replacing English and other languages during electronic interactions, but also invading the everyday speech among them. Netspeak or internet slang has been defined by McFedries as â€Å"the words, idioms and peculiarities of spelling and grammar that are characteristic of online documents and communications.† It began as Instant Messaging Services like AOL, MSN and Yahoo magnetized millions of users that constantly sought to find efficient, shorter and faster ways of interaction, with limited characters on the keyboard determining the linguistic capacity (Shaw, c.2004). The outcome was sentences and phrases abbreviated into words and replacement of characters with others that resemble them for convenience of typing. This led to coining of a synonymous term, ‘leet’, which is a shortened term used for elite and is also written as 1337, similar characters as implied by the definition. Some of the most common ‘words’ are LOL, an acronym for ‘laughing out loud’, and ‘BARB’, which is a shortened version of ‘be right back.’ The knowledg e of Netspeak is now crucial to understanding any conversation that takes place over internet messaging. Another distinguishing aspect of Netspeak is the coinage and use of emoticons or graphical smileys, used to convey emotions and intentions like happiness and anger. As obvious, the reason for hostility against it by intellectuals is random and erroneous use of spellings- often called creative spellings, - grammar and punctuations by users, since it is informal and free of such constraints. This could be explicitly explained by the example, ‘practice b4 u go, k?’ The effects of internet slang on writings have been well-noticed and criticized by teachers and parents alike, with students also admitting its drawbacks. Lee describes them as constant attacks of technology on formal written English (cited in Vosloo, 2009), while Humphry compares its brunt on grammar, punctuations and

Stretching Our Horizons Essay Example for Free

Stretching Our Horizons Essay Comparing and contrasting Platos Allegory of the Cave with Paulo Freires Pedagogy of the Oppressed is a complex example of comparing bananas with tangerines. It is hard to take in the mind of a great philosopher. It is even harder to make that mind your own. For that reason the task of fully evaluating these two pieces side by side may forever be a work in progress. Each essay contains three major points. These points discussed new and advised teaching methods, how man is related to or with the world; and the responsibility that enlightened individuals have to mankind. The ideas of these two philosophers both mirror and oppose each other in varying degrees. Through taking very different paths the two writers make their own points clear and demand rational and logical thought of their readers. Plato was a student of Socrates and though the writing of Allegory of the Cave is all his own the basis for his ideas came from none other than his own teacher. The teacher you see is one half of the great element in Platos epiphany. Socrates is in fact a main character in the conversation from which this excerpt is taken. It is said that in this particular work, Plato described symbolically the predicament in which mankind finds itself and proposes a way of salvation (Plato 1). Throughout the conversation a system of ideas develops that are meant to teach the reader or readers about themselves, their world and how it should be viewed rather than a simple, inverted, non-involved outlook that is common to everyday people. The purpose of this writing was to bring about enlightenment. To bring forth this enlightenment we must search for knowledge according to Plato and this knowledge he refers to as light. Light brings the world into focus, so does knowledge and realization of ones plac e in the world. In Platos model, the teacher questions the actions or ideas of the student so that the student will learn to think on their own. A person who quests knowledge for themselves and engages in thoughts other than those placed in their heads by another individual will find that knowledge. The quest for knowledge is not only a right but also a duty and one that brings with it responsibility and dignity. Everyone has the ability to search for and find the light, or knowledge as we call it. Everyone also has the ability to attain this  knowledge. According to Socrates in this dialogue, living a life with true knowledge and enlightenment is living a philosophical one. A life that casts a downward look onto one of politics is one of true philosophy and one of true philosophy. This life is the only one that degrades the grandeur of political ambition. Part of finding this light is becoming aware of the human relationship with the world. Plato believed that most men see themselves as living in a narrow world. If the truth is told the world as they believe it is not a picture of reality. Therefore, the world exists and man is here in it, but does not truly understand what it really is for he does not knows even himself as a man. Once a person has discovered himself, once he has discovered the light, it is his inborn duty to share this with the world. His purpose is now to become a writer of philosophy, to become a teacher in the school of thought. Despite the level on which a person decides to do these honorable deeds, it is not enough. It is the enlightened mans reason for being part of this great world that he has discovered. Pablo Freires ideas about man and educating are compiled in his Pedagogy of the Oppressed. He strongly suggests that for teaching to be the most effective it must be cognitive or revolutionary forum. The students should be pressed toward thinking on an individual level and this must be done in such a way that the teacher is not the source from which the knowledge comes. The instructor should be a means to obtain knowledge, a tool that is an aid rather than a necessity. Often times the teacher must become the student in the since of being open to new arguments and ideas that are introduced by the student. Freires theory also states that a person is not part of the world; but the world is part of the person. He says that without mankind the world would not exist because there would be no one to say that it was doing so. What a person is what becomes reality, it is the true world. Freire suggests that to be enlightened, one must be more humanistic. The more humanistic a person can become the more knowledge they have obtained and the more they can help the world. This is the most important element because since they are of such great knowledge it is their job to pass this onto the world so that everyone may become more enlightened and raise the level of our existence. As it may be seen the two writers have both theories in common and those completely at odds with one another. Plato says that to teach you must challenge that you must force, but Freire says that you must stand back and let the student come to personal and individual cognition. In this Freire argues a revolutionary teaching method, but does so in an essay that follows the style of narrative banking, while Plato rigidly portrays his methods in the way that his writing is developed and constructed. Both men see that man has a direct relationship with the world. Plato sees man as a part of the world, which must be brought into the light to see in reality. Freire on the other hand says that the individual is the world and that what he sees is what is real. The main area of agreement comes when both philosophers convey, it is the enlightened peoples place to carry on their knowledge to others. In one suggestion Plato uses his theory of philosophical lives being of a higher level than thos e of simple political ambition as an example of how to broaden the horizons of common place people by saying that enlightened people should be the ones in these political offices. From these offices they will be able to do more good than an unenlightened person will. They will be able to teach life and the value of it. Freire believes that an enlightened person must teach the very enlightenment and that the responsibility of extending this thought lies both on the student and the teacher. People cannot become great on their own, they must have educators, people to point them in the right direction. Their aid in seeking personal enlightenment could be anyone or anything and come from any of the various methods. The existence of the world is what we make it. Our duty is to ourselves and that entitles all that we believe both as individuals and as a group. While the debate about whom is right or wrong will continue throughout time, one thing is for sure: we must go on.

Sherman Alexie Essay Example for Free

Sherman Alexie Essay At any given time in life, we can be described as belonging to any number of categories or tribes based on the roles we value and the areas where we focus the most attention. A few of my personal tribes include: the tribe of creative expressionists, the tribe of college students, and lastly, the tribe of young adults longing to find their place in the world. The first tribe I describe myself as belonging to is the tribe of creative expressionists, which thrive in areas of self expression and creativity. I draw because words are too unpredictable. I draw because words are too limited (Alexie 5). I sometimes find it difficult to express and understant the emotions I feel raging inside. In these moments, I enjoy experimenting with vibrant splashes of paint across a canvas or dark scrawling into a notebook to better understand or cope with these feeligns. I relish being able to question why things work the way that they do, and the freedom to add my personal insights into a situation in order to come up with creative solutions. Being boxed-in or pushed into conventional methods of systematic processes is arduous and boring to me. Instead, I enjoy being able to question why things work the way they do, and being able to add my own personal insights in a situation to help come up with creative solutions. In some ways, I am not always practical in the ways I approach a situation, preferring to rest upon somethings potential, rather than seeing the raw reality of what it actually is I am an idealist to the core, and sometimes find it difficult to let go of the ideals in my mind, in favor of compromising to reach a realistic solution. Another tribe I belong to is one of college students pursuing an education. Oddly enough, after doing poorly my first semester in the fall of 2007, I had written off pursuing a degree. I studied under a couple of missionaries who were affiliated with Harvest Bible College, but never completed any official courses. Instead, my focus was on finding purpose and meaning in relationship with Christ and wrestling through what it means to be a true disciple of Jesus. After moving back home with my mom, and helping her enroll in courses, I began to feel the tug on my heart to consider going back myself. With no clear idea of what degree I would even want to pursue, I kept putting off enrollment. Soon, my aunt was diagnosed with stage 4 lung cancer and began a downward spiral in the winter of 2010. At that time, I focused all my energy on prayer for my family, but also in researching natural science and asking important questions about how and why the body does what it does. I became engrossed with the nuances of human anatomy, disease, and the importance of understanding what we are feeding our bodies. I am passionate about sharing my own journey of discovery with others along the way, and I believe have found something worth working towards for the future! As I am finishing up the last prerequisite courses, I am hoping to enter into the nursing program at Fort Scott Community College in Paola, this fall. Lastly, I belong to the tribe of young (some not-so-young) adults searching for a place of identity in the world. Where are my talents and passions most effective? Where am I most needed; in what areas of life do I find purpose and value? Arent we all searching to find fulfillment and peace of mind? Personally, I believe that it is only after we have learned to let go of the reigns and to truly surrender our demand for control, that the Lord meets us with His perfect provisioning. In my life, a scripture that I have learned to find my identity in is written in Jeremiah, which says, For only I know the plans I have for you, plans to prosper you and not to harm you, plans to give you hope and a future. Then you will call on me and pray to me, and I will listen to you. You will seek me, and find me when youve sought with all your heart. I will be found by you! declares the Lord. A friend of mine recently admitted that it was with a heart of half-dread that she had prayerfully submitted to Gods heart for her life, whatever it looked like. She was afraid that in doing so, the Lord would uproot her four children and have them move to a far-away land to do missions. How amazed she was to find that His mission for her life was not in searching out far-away lands, but in reaching far-away hearts, right where He had placed her. Even before she had asked, He had prepared the way for His hand to come forth in her life! She has found such purpose and contentment in life what a rich blessing! How amazing can our lives be, when we surrender our own ideas of what it must look like, and ask for His design. I believe He places dreams and desires within our hearts, that we will truly enjoy the work He puts before us, if only we are willing to wait for His perfect direction!

Infectious Complications of Kidney Transplantation

Infectious Complications of Kidney Transplantation Introduction: Infections that develop after transplantation may be life-threatening and may affect outcomes. Infection follows cardiovascular disease as the second most common cause of death with a functioning graft in kidney transplant recipients. Post-transplant infections develop in approximately 40% of recipients within the first year in spite of prophylaxis. Both the type and occurrence of infections in the immunocompromised transplant recipient follow a timetable pattern. HBV, hepatitis B virus; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HSV, herpes simplex virus; LCMV, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus; MRSA, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; PCP, Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia; PML, progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy; PTLD, post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder; SARS, severe acute respiratory syndrome; VRE, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis; VZV, varicella-zoster virus. Reproduced from Fishman JA. Infection in solid-organ transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 2007; 357:2601-14. With permission from the Massachusetts Medical Society.  © 2007 Massachusetts Medical Society. Risk Factors for Posttransplant Infectious Complications Pretransplant host factors: Underlying medical condition e.g. Diabetes Mellitus Chronic infections e.g. Hepatitis C viral infection Latent infections e.g. Tuberculosis, Dimorphic fungi Colonization with resistant bacteria Recipients preexisting immunity e.g. Varicella Zoster Virus Prior medications e.g. Antimicrobials, Corticosteroids Transplant factors: Allograft derived e.g. Cytomegalovirus Surgical duration, instrumentation, wound, abdominal fluid collections, technical issue e.g. type of anastomosis Blood transfusion Immunosuppression Immunosuppressive agents and additional treatment for episodes of rejection Time posttransplant Epidemiologic exposure Urinary Tract Infections: Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the most common bacterial infections following transplantation, which develop in approximately 20% of recipients. Female sex, genitourinary tract manipulation during transplantation, prolonged bladder catheterization, ureteric stenting, age, and delayed graft function (DGF) are independent risk factors. UTIs are independently associated with the development of bacteremia, and untreated UTIs are associated with subsequent rejection (3). Post-transplant vesicoureteric reflux occurs in up to 40% of transplant recipients, although is not associated with the UTI risk (4). Ureteric stents mitigate the risk of ureteric strictures and leaks after transplantation. Center practices vary, with stenting of all patients at some centers and more selective stenting at others. Wilson et al. performed a Cochrane analysis of seven randomized controlled trials (RCTs) encompassing 1,154 patients that examined the practice of allograft ureteric stenting (5). The incidence of major urologic complications including urine leak and obstruction was significantly reduced (relative risk [RR], 0.24; 95% CI, 0.07 to 0.77; P=0.02; number needed to treat = 13) by universal prophylactic stenting. However, UTIs were more common in stented patients (RR, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.04 to 2.15), unless the patients were prescribed trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX), in which case the incidence was equivalent (RR, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.71 to 1.33). Stents were generally well tolerated, although studies using longer stents (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥20 cm) for longer periods (> 6 weeks) developed problems mo re frequently with encrustation and migration. Typical pathogens include Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, Enterococcus, Enterobacter, Staphylococcus, and Pseudomonas. In the case of recurrent infections, abscesses or other nidi of infection should be sought out by means of imaging with ultrasound or computed tomography. Early catheter removal decreases the incidence of UTI in renal allograft recipients. The use of TMP/SMX to prevent Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia and UTI has long been the standard of care after kidney transplantation. Wojciechowski et al. performed a single-center study comparing TMP/SMX for 6 months (group 1) versus TMP/SMX for 6 months plus ciprofloxacin for 30 days (group 2) for prophylaxis after kidney transplantation (6). At 1 year, more patients in group 1 developed UTIs (23.6% versus 10.8%; P=0.01) and the mean time to first UTI was shorter. There was a similar incidence of enteric Gram-negative antibiotic resistance to TMP/ SMX (75% versus 80%; P=1.00) and ciprofloxacin (16.7% versus 30%; P=0.39) in groups 1 and 2. For groups 1 and 2, the proportion of first UTIs requiring hospitalization was 48.9% versus 40.6%, respectively. A clean-catch midstream urine specimen should be submitted for quantitative bacterial and fungal  culture. Antibiotic therapy should be tailored according to the offending microorganism and drug susceptibility tests. Septicemia: The incidence of hospitalizations for septicemia among renal transplant recipients is approximately 42 times that of the general population. The urinary tract is the most common source of septicemia, followed by the lungs, the surgical wound site, and the abdomen. Most cases occur within the first six months after transplantation. Among patients with bacteremia, poor outcome is associated with Gram-negative species, multidrug-resistant organisms, and Candida species, especially when the empiric antimicrobial therapy is inappropriate or delayed. Bige et al. retrospectively studied 83 kidney transplant recipients (KTRs) admitted for sepsis, severe sepsis, or septic shock to their intensive care unit over a 10-year period (1). The main sites of infection were the lung (54%), urinary tract (24%), and bloodstream (22%). Eighty percent of infections were bacterial. Mechanical ventilation was used in 46 patients (56%), vasopressors in 39 patients (47%), and RRT in 34 patients (41%). The 90-day mortality rate was 22%. By day 90, among the 65 survivors, 39 (47%) had recovered their previous graft function, and 26 (31%) had impaired graft function, including 16 (19%) who were dependent on RRT. Some studies suggest that bacterial sepsis increases the risk for CMV infection because of high levels of tumor necrosis factor-ÃŽÂ ± (TNF-ÃŽÂ ±) or dysregulated immune response to CMV in the context of serious bacterial infections. For detection of bloodstream infection, two sets of blood cultures should be obtained before initiation of antimicrobial therapy. If intravascular catheter-associated bacteremia is suspected, the device should be removed and the catheter tip should be cultured. Pneumonia: The incidence of pneumonia in kidney transplantation is the lowest among all solid organ transplants (8 to 16 percent). However, pneumonia is the most serious infection, leading to death in up to 50 percent of cases. The infectious agent in the majority of patients is never determined. This is likely because of the low yield of blood and sputum cultures and the efficacy of antibacterial therapy. In patients who are hypoxic on presentation or do not respond to initial therapy, a bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is almost always warranted. Patients should be referred if possible to a transplant center to improve the likelihood of diagnosing the etiologic agent. Common causative organisms include Streptococcus pneumoniae, nontypable Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and respiratory viruses such as influenza, adenovirus, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Less commonly, patients may present with opportunistic organisms such as P. jirovecii and L. pneumophila. Silver stains for direct fluorescent antibody for Pneumocystis should be done on sputum or BAL specimens. A urine Legionella antigen test should be done on all patients on initial work up. Mycobaterium tuberculosis: Among the infections, tuberculosis is an important cause of morbidity in renal transplant recipients in developing world. The incidence of post-transplant tuberculosis in India has been reported to be highest in the world at 5.7 to 10 percent in various studies. Most cases of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in kidney transplant recipients are due to reactivation of latent tuberculosis lesions. Important risk factors for reactivation include nonwhite race, history of active tuberculosis, presence of marked abnormality on a chest radiograph, exposure to person with a confirmed case of tuberculosis, and skin test positivity. In transplant patients, the clinical presentation of tuberculosis may be atypical and extrapulmonary and miliary tuberculosis is seen more frequently than in the normal population. Tuberculosis presents numerous diagnostic difficulties in renal transplant recipients. Because of high frequency of anergy in immunosupressed patients, the Mantoux test is generally unhelpful as a diagnostic tool. e classic picture of apical involvement in the general chest X-ray is seen in only a minority of renal transplant recipients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Demonstration of acid-fast bacilli in the sputum smear requires repeated examination on several occasions and has a low yield. Identification on culture takes four to six weeks. Treatment of post-transplant tuberculosis presents problems both in the choice of antitubercular agents and in the duration of therapy. Rifampicin is a well-known hepatic P-450 microsomal enzyme inducer, increasing the clearance of both prednisolone and cyclosporine A. The dose of prednisolone needs to be doubled and that of cyclosporine increased to three- to four-fold to maintain therapeutic blood levels. e latter increases the cost of therapy and is unacceptable to a vast majority of patients. An alternative regime that has been successfully used for these patients consists of a combination of isoniazid, pyrazinamide, ofloxacin, and ethambutol. e optimum duration of therapy is also a matter of debate but is usually for 9 to 12 months. e duration needs to be increased to 18 months in patients who are on cyclosporine and are not receiving rifampicin. e role of INH prophylaxis after transplant in endemic areas is controversial. Cytomegalovirus (CMV): CMV is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among kidney transplant recipients. Between 60 and 90 percent of adults are seropositive. Symptomatic disease ranges from a relatively mild syndrome of fever, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and elevated liver enzymes to severe disseminated disease that involves multiple organ systems, such as the lung, liver, and GI tract. CMV disease has been implicated as a cause of acute and chronic graft dysfunction as well as long-term graft loss. CMV can also suppress the immune response which predisposes the host to infections with other viruses, bacteria, and fungi. The incidence and severity of CMV disease has been most strongly associated with the CMV serostatus of the kidney donor and recipient. Seronegative recipients who receive a kidney from a seropositive donor (D+/R-) are at greatest risk for severe primary infection during the first three months post-transplant. Rapid and accurate diagnosis of CMV is important because delayed recognition results in increased morbidity. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction assays for CMV DNA and pp65 antigen detections are the most commonly used means to detect CMV viremia. e shell vial viral culture method remains a reliable way of detecting CMV in sputum. Multiple strategies have been used to reduce the morbidity and mortality of CMV infection and its associated costs (see Table 4). Avoiding CMV sero- mismatching through organ allocation is not feasible or worthwhile. Universal prophylaxis refers to giving prophylactic therapy to all kidney transplant patients regardless of their CMV serostatus. Selected prophylaxis refers to giving prophylaxis to patients at high risk for CMV, namely the D+/R- category or those receiving lymphocyte-depleting therapy. e preemptive treatment approach treats asymptomatic CMV infection in an e ort to prevent CMV disease. Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages, and there is no de nitive consensus on optimal preventive strategy. Prophylactic Therapy: Prophylactic therapy is effective in preventing CMV disease in high-risk patients. Ganciclovir and valganciclovir are equally efficacious. Ganciclovir 1,000 mg PO three times daily and valganciclovir 900 mg PO once daily are used. Valganciclovir is contraindicated in patients with a creatinine clearance of less than 10 ml/h. Prophylactic therapy is usually given during the first 100 days post- kidney transplant. A concern with the prophylactic strategy is that 20 to 30 percent of high-risk patients go on to develop late-onset CMV disease after the prophylaxis is stopped, and the incidence of ganciclovir resistance may be higher in those who receive prophylaxis. Preemptive Therapy: Preemptive therapy of CMV infection involves monitoring for CMV viremia and starting treatment before the development of signs or symptoms of disease. It has been shown to be as effective as prophylactic therapy in preventing CMV disease. Both oral ganciclovir and valganciclovir have been shown to be effective in treating viremia. Preemptive therapy has the advantage of avoiding the costs and complications of antiviral therapy in low-risk patients while at the same time initiating treatment early to avoid symptomatic disease in high-risk patients. It has also been shown to decrease the development of late CMV disease. Its major limitation is the need to perform frequent determinations of CMV viremia. Ganciclovir Resistance: Ganciclovir resistance is becoming more common among solid-organ transplant recipients. In one study, 6.2 percent of CMV isolates had UL97 or UL54 mutations. Viral strains with mutations in the UL97 gene, which encodes for a viral protein kinase, remain susceptible to foscarnet and cidofovir. Mutations in the UL54 gene that encodes DNA polymerase can result in resistance to ganciclovir, foscarnet, and cidofovir. e emergence of ganciclovir-resistant CMV underscores the importance of optimizing preventive strategies. BK Virus (BKV): BKV is associated with post-transplantation nephropathy, hemorrhagic cystitis, and ureteral obstruction. It has a tropism for genitourinary tract and usually remains dormant in the urinary tract and circulating leukocytes after the primary childhood infection and becomes reactivated during immunosuppression. Adult seroprevalence rates for BKV range from 65 to 90 percent and BKV reactivation can come from the recipient or the donor. BK viremia occurs in 13 percent and BK nephropathy in 8 percent of kidney transplant recipients. Analysis of risk factors for reactivation has underscored the central role played by serologic status of the donor, immunosuppressive regimens, injury to the uroepithelial tissue, and acute rejection. Distinguishing between BK infection and allograft rejection is of paramount importance, since BK infection necessitates reducing immunosuppression and allograft rejection requires the opposite. Among kidney transplant recipients who are receiving immunosuppressive therapy, 10 to 60 percent have reactivation of BKV accompanied by shedding of urothelial cells. Shedding is inconsistently associated with allograft dysfunction. Once the virus has reactivated, an ascending infection via cell-to-cell spread occurs. e overall state of immunosuppression is the primary determinant of BKV reactivation. Viral replication begins early after transplantation and progresses through detectable stages-viruria, then viremia, then nephropathy. Viruria can be detected by PCR for BKV DNA, reverse transcription (RT)-PCR for BKV RNA, cytology for BKV inclusion bearing epithelial cells termed decoy cells, or electron microscopy for viral particles. Viremia is a better predictor of nephropathy than viruria. Although higher levels of viremia correlate with the risk of developing nephropathy, there are no established thresholds of viremia to indicate nephropathy. The gold standard for establishing BK nephropathy remains a kidney biopsy with positive immuno- histochemical or immunofluorescent staining for the SV-40 large T antigen. An effective screening strategy is to check blood for BKV DNA by PCR monthly for the first 3 months and at 6 and 12 months after transplantation, at the time of any unexplained rise in serum creatinine, and after augmentation of immunosuppression. Because BKV nephropathy is preceded by BK viremia, asymptomatic BK viremia should prompt empiric immunosuppression reduction and continued monitoring. Currently, no established antiviral treatment is available, and control of viral infection is tentatively obtained by means of reduction of immunosuppression. Treatment attempts have included immunoglobulins without proof of efficacy. Other options include deoxyspergualin, cidofovir, leflunomide, uoroquinolones and gyrase inhibitors. Cidofovir use is limited by its nephrotoxicity. Fungal Infections: The incidence of fungal infections in renal transplant recipients is less than that reported for other solid organ transplant recipients, the mortality from fungal infections remains high and is related to the pathogenicity of the  organisms, site of infection, impaired host inflammatory response, limited diagnostic tools, potential for rapid clinical progression, failure to recognize a high-risk patient, and comorbidities, such as renal failure and diabetes mellitus. Colonization with yeasts and molds occurs frequently in transplant candidates with ESRD and after transplantation because of exposure to broad-spectrum antibacterial agents, domiciliary and hospital exposures, immunosuppressive therapy, especially corticosteroids, and the presence of urinary catheters and endotracheal tubes. Isolation of Candida species from cultures of stool, respiratory, and urine samples occurs commonly in kidney transplant recipients receiving corticosteroids and broad-spectrum antimicrobials and does not necessarily imply infection. However, repeatedly positive fungal cultures from a single or from multiple sites may herald invasive candidiasis in the appropriate clinical setting. Candida species, Aspergillus species, P. jiroveci, and C. neoformans are the most common fungal pathogens reported in renal transplant recipients. Candida infections occur most commonly during the first month following transplantation and are usually associated with transplant surgical technical complications, early rejection, and enhanced immuno- suppression. Candida infection is most commonly associated with an endogenous source of colonization. C. albicans is the most common species, followed by C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, and C. parapsilosis. Speciation is clinically useful because nonalbicans Candida species vary in in vitro susceptibility to amphotericin B and azoles. Sites of Candida infection include mucocutaneous candidiasis and esophagitis; wound infections; cystitis, pyelonephritis, and ureteral obstruction by Candida elements or fungal ball; intra- abdominal infections, including infected perigraft fluid collections or peritonitis; and intravascular device- associated fungemia. Renal parenchymal infection most often results from candidemia and hematogenous spread, although ascending infection from the bladder can oc cur. Candiduria is typically asymptomatic but may be associated with cystitis or upper tract infection. Patients with genitourinary tract stents and recurrent funguria often require removal of foreign body to eradicate the infection. Cryptococcus often presents as meningitis but may cause space-occupying brain lesions; pulmonary, dermatologic, skeletal, organ-specific disease; aspergillosis-pneumonia and other tissue-invasive forms, including genitourinary, central nervous system, rhinocerebral, GI, skin, wound, and musculoskeletal disease. Patients at risk for aspergillosis include those receiving repeated courses of enhanced immuno- suppression for rejection and those with chronic graft dysfunction, diabetes, comorbid medical illnesses, or CMV infection. Diagnosis of aspergillus infection depends on a high clinical suspicion, isolation of Aspergillus species from a sterile body site or repeated isolation from the respiratory tract, and typical radiographic findings. Radiologic appearances of pulmonary aspergillosis in kidney transplant recipients include nodules, di use or wedge-shaped opacities, empyema, or cavitary forms. Serial measurement of aspergillus galactomannan in the serum may aid in the early diagno sis of invasive aspergillosis in the high-risk setting. Historically, invasive candidiasis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, and aspergillosis were treated with amphotericin B deoxycholate (AmB). The lipid formulations of amphotericin B are all associated with lower risks for nephrotoxicity, metabolic derangements, and infusion-associated side effects than is AmB. Higher therapeutic dosages can be administered, and broad-spectrum antifungal activity is generally maintained. Voriconazole appears to be superior to conventional AmB for the treatment of invasive aspergillosis and also has in vitro activity against a wider range of organisms. Available in both intravenous and oral formulations, the drug is generally well-tolerated, but some patients experience visual hallucinations or severe photosensitivity. Oral posaconazole has excellent activity in vitro against Candida, Aspergillus, and Mucor species, but experience in solid organ transplant recipients is limited to date. Although itraconazole has good in vitro activity against Aspergillus species, its use is generally reserved for treatment of less-severe aspergillosis or maintenance therapy following initial response to lipid amphotericin or voriconazole and for treatment of endemic mycoses. Fluconazole is the first-line agent of the treatment or prevention of reactivation of coccidioidomycosis in renal transplant  recipients. The echinocandins, including caspofungin, anidulafungin, and micafungin, inhibit synthesis of fungal cell wall protein ÃŽÂ ²1-3 glucan and are fungicidal for Candida species, including fluconazole-resistant species. Available only as intravenous formulations, the echinocandins are effective, well tolerated, and have few drug-drug interactions.